Prescription rates for off-label conditions have overtaken that for on-label use. ), Risk of somnolence, sedation, and dizziness. 2023 Jan 31;59(2):280. doi: 10.3390/medicina59020280. The goal is to achieve pain reduction so that patients can work towards functional improvement. In contrast, pregabalin has non-saturable absorption with a linear pharmacokinetic profile and less variable bioavailability as it may be transported by carriers in addition to LAT.12 Food has only a slight effect on the rate and extent of absorption of gabapentin but can substantially delay the absorption of pregabalin without affecting the bioavailability.12, Gabapentinoids do not bind to plasma proteins. A comparison of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of pregabalin and gabapentin. To achieve this, the pharmacokinetics of gabapentin enacarbil were examined in healthy adults when administered alone or in combination with naproxen, a known MCT-1 substrate. AHFS DI Essentials. In addition to their use in managing neuropathic pain, gabapentinoids are increasingly being used for off-label conditions despite the lack of evidence. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Conventional (immediate-release) gabapentin: Food does not substantially affect bioavailability. Pharmacological and clinical aspects of antiepileptic drug use in the elderly, Perioperative use of pregabalin for acute pain a systematic review and meta-analysis, Perioperative management of opioid-tolerant patients, https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/prescription-cost-analysis/2018, https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/pregabalin.html#indicationsAndDoses, https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/gabapentin.html#indicationsAndDoses, https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/gabapentin-neurontin-risk-of-severe-respiratory-depression, https://www.sps.nhs.uk/articles/gabapentin-and-pregabalin-offender-health-audit-report-and-audit-tool/, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/pregabalin-and-gabapentin-to-be-controlled-as-class-c-drugs, https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG59/chapter/Recommendations#non-invasive-treatments-for-low-back-pain-and-sciatica, https://www.therapeutics.scot.nhs.uk/pain/, Very limited if any metabolism occurs. Titrate upward over a period of approximately 3 days until an effective maintenance dosage is achieved. Molecular Basic of Pharmacotherapy of Cytokine Imbalance as a Component of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration Treatment. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! 2017 Dec;47(4):310-313. doi: 10.4997/JRCPE.2017.402. Maintenance dosage of 300600 mg 3 times daily recommended. Khler G, Eichner M, Abrahamian H, Kofler M, Sturm W, Menzel A. Wien Klin Wochenschr. Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS), also known as multiorgan hypersensitivity, reported; clinical presentation is variable but typically includes fever, rash, eosinophilia, and/or lymphadenopathy associated with other organ system involvement (e.g., hepatitis, nephritis, hematologic abnormalities, myositis, myocarditis). In most cases, patients were receiving another CNS depressant concomitantly or had a respiratory risk factor, including older age. ), Gabapentin: Commercially available as conventional (immediate-release) capsules, tablets, or oral solution. A sublingual sufentanil tablet has been developed recently for the treatment of moderate-to-severe postoperative pain in the hospital setting; this is delivered via a patient-controlled hand-held delivery system 7 - 10. Sep 2009. Structure of GABA: gabapentin and pregabalin.10. Closely monitor all patients currently receiving or beginning anticonvulsant therapy for changes in behavior that may indicate emergence or worsening of suicidal thoughts or behavior or depression. An official website of the United States government. National Library of Medicine Clinical studies establishing efficacy of gabapentin for this indication were conducted with conventional (immediate-release) preparations; efficacy of gabapentin gastroretentive tablets and gabapentin enacarbil not established in patients with seizure disorders. The UK is the first country to allow OTC access to Sanofi's tadalafil-based erectile dysfunction drug Cialis following a successful switch. Adverse effects in older patients with PHN generally similar to those in younger adults; however, the incidence of peripheral edema and ataxia appears to increase with age. There is evidence that patients having pro-nociceptive surgeries such as spinal surgery that may be associated with nerve damage may benefit from perioperative use.84 Opioid tolerant patients could benefit from even modest analgesic effects.85. The use of the last observation carried forward imputation method used in analyses of the primary outcomes could overestimate the treatment effect. Target daily dosages from 1.2 g up to a maximum of 3.6 g (administered in divided doses) given as conventional preparations often required for adequate pain relief. Gabapentin conventional (immediate-release) preparations: 300 mg on day 1, 300 mg twice daily on day 2, and 300 mg 3 times daily on day 3. 300 mg 3 times daily as gabapentin conventional (immediate-release) preparations has been effective; higher dosages may provide additional benefit. The EC50 of pregabalin and gabapentin was estimated to be about 4.21 and 11.7mg/mL, respectively, in postherpetic neuralgia, suggesting pregabalin is 2.8 times more potent.12 Although potency can be a good indicator of therapeutic potential, it may not always correlate with clinical efficacy. Gee NS, Brown JP, Dissanayake VUK, et al. Pharmacology Mechanism of Action. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Approved as a pharmacy medicine, Sanofi will launch Cialis Together in the second half of the year. Finnerup NB, Attal N, Haroutounian S, et al. Gabapentin enacarbil: Manufacturer states none known. Some patients may have scant, Time to effective dose using recommended titrations, Gabapentin dosing in renal impairment (creatinine clearance, mL/min), 150600mg/day (150 mg daily dose to be given as 300 mg in three divided doses on alternate days), 150300mg/day in three divided doses (150 mg daily dose to be given as 300 mg in three divided doses on alternate days), Pregabalin dosing in renal impairment (eGFR, mL/min/1.73m, Initially 75mg daily and maximum 300mg daily, Initially 2550mg daily and maximum 150mg daily in one to two divided doses, Initially 25mg once daily and maximum 75mg once daily. They do not bind to the GABA receptor despite being structurally similar to GABA as can be seen in Figure 1.10 These drugs were initially marketed as off-label treatment for pain and eventually were approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. FOIA In contrast, orally administered pregabalin is absorbed more rapidly, with maximum plasma concentrations attained within 1 hour. FOIA 11 Drug metabolism consists of phase I and phase II reactions. 2020 Dec 1;3(12):e2031647. Epub 2023 Apr 20. 2007 Feb;28(2):75-82 -, Neurology. Patel R, Bauer CS, Nieto-Rostro M, et al. Forty-five patients with moderate-to-severe refractory . Gabapentin and gabapentin enacarbil also have been used for management of diabetic peripheral neuropathy [off-label] (DPN). Hoppe C, Rademacher M, Hoffmann JM, et al. Increased incidence of pancreatic acinar adenocarcinomas observed in rat carcinogenicity studies with gabapentin and gabapentin enacarbil. Mechanisms not directly related to neurotransmitter release at dorsal horn include inhibition of descending serotonergic facilitation, stimulation of descending inhibition, anti-inflammatory actions and influence on the affective component of pain. No adequate and well-controlled studies to date in pregnant women; developmental toxicity (e.g., skeletal abnormalities, hydroureter and hydronephrosis, increased embryofetal mortality) demonstrated in animals. If gabapentin is used concomitantly with other CNS depressants or in the setting of underlying respiratory impairment, monitor patients and adjust dosage appropriately; consider initiating therapy with the lowest dosage and titrate carefully. Gabapentin enacarbil is a prodrug of gabapentin. Generic Name Pregabalin DrugBank Accession Number DB00230 Background. Similarly, the use of gabapentinoids in the perioperative period is now embedded in clinical practice despite conflicting evidence. Gabapentin systemic 300 mg (IG322 300 mg). Potential for drug to impair mental alertness or physical coordination; avoid driving or operating machinery until effects on individual are known. Elevated levels in the dorsal horn are associated with the development of neuropathic pain. Disclaimer. Methods: This was a randomised cross-over study (10 mg intravenously (i.v.) Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, If you miss a dose of this medicine, take it as soon as possible. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Keywords: Not known whether gabapentin crosses the placenta. 8600 Rockville Pike Increases risk of sedation/somnolence, dizziness, Causes rapid release of drug from gabapentin enacarbil extended-release tablets, Reduced bioavailability of gabapentin, but to a smaller extent when gabapentin administered 2 hours after antacid, Administer gabapentin at least 2 hours after antacid, Plasma concentrations of carbamazepine, phenytoin, valproic acid, phenobarbital, and diazepam in existing treatment regimens not affected by gabapentin; pharmacokinetics of gabapentin not affected by these drugs, May be used concomitantly without concern about alterations in plasma concentrations of gabapentin or other anticonvulsant drugs, Possible decrease in gabapentin clearance, CNS depressants (e.g., antihistamines, benzodiazepines, tricyclic antidepressants), Possible additive CNS and respiratory depressant effects; cases of serious and sometimes fatal respiratory depression reported with concomitant use, Initiate gabapentin with the lowest dosage and titrate carefully, Observe for signs of CNS or respiratory depression; reduce dosage of gabapentin or the CNS depressant if indicated, Increased bioavailability of gabapentin at subtherapeutic dosages of both drugs, Extent of interaction at usual therapeutic dosages is unknown, Opiate analgesics (e.g., hydrocodone, morphine), Possible increased gabapentin concentrations and increased risk of adverse effects, Hydrocodone: Possible decrease in plasma concentrations of hydrocodone, Morphine: Morphine pharmacokinetics based on a controlled-release preparation not affected by gabapentin (when administered 2 hours after the morphine dose), Observe for signs of CNS or respiratory depression; reduce dosage of gabapentin or the opiate analgesic if indicated, Possible increase in peak plasma concentrations of norethindrone. Gabapentin gastroretentive tablets: Titrate gradually over 2 weeks up to recommended maintenance dosage of 1.8 g once daily as follows: 300 mg once daily on day 1, 600 mg once daily on day 2, 900 mg once daily on days 36, 1.2 g once daily on days 710, 1.5 g once daily on days 1114, and 1.8 g once daily on day 15. The differing pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles can have implications for clinical practice. Your doctor may adjust your dose as needed and tolerated. government site. Gabapentin toxicity can occur in patients with chronic kidney disease.59 The risk of toxicity is higher in patients on dialysis. Maintenance dosage of 300600 mg 3 times daily recommended. However, there is conflicting evidence to support their use.70,71 Most reviews demonstrate a reduction in perioperative opioid consumption after surgery7276 but the quality of the trials included is moderate to very low.71 The reduction is often modest with a difference of as little as 5mg of morphine in 24hours.71 Although perioperative gabapentin did not affect time to postoperative pain resolution in a mixed cohort of surgical patients, it was associated with a modest increase in the rate of opioid cessation.77, This modest reduction in opioid use has to be balanced against the increased risk of adverse effects such as dizziness and increased sedation.71 Gabapentinoids increase the risk of opioid-induced respiratory depression.78 Continued use of chronic gabapentin in the postoperative period is associated with an increased rate of naloxone administration (OR: 6.30).79 Gabapentinoids are often used perioperatively to prevent chronic postsurgical pain evidence. Helps you get and maintain an erection when you need it. Importance of taking gabapentin exactly as prescribed. (See Dizziness and Somnolence under Cautions.) Adults receiving gabapentin enacarbil for restless legs syndrome: somnolence/sedation, dizziness. Pregabalin is structurally similar to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Potentially fatal or life-threatening. GABA reduces the excitability of nerve cells (neurons) in the brain, which play a role in seizures and the transmission of pain signals. Bockbrader HN, Wesche D, Miller R, et al. Chou R, Gordon DB, de Leon-Casasola OA, et al. Drugs.com provides accurate and independent information on more than 24,000 prescription drugs, over-the-counter medicines and natural products. A Cochrane review showed that it is highly effective in only a small proportion of patients with moderate to severe pain about 10% more than placebo.67 The NNT for a reduction in pain by 3050% in patients with moderate or severe fibromyalgia over 1226weeks is 10. Discontinue gabapentin if manifestations of anaphylaxis or angioedema (e.g., difficulty breathing; swelling of the lips, throat, and tongue; hypotension) occur. NCI CPTC Antibody Characterization Program, Trends Pharmacol Sci. Drug information provided by: Merative, Micromedex Take this medicine only as directed by your doctor. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Accessibility 19.79. Gabapentin has been used for the management of vasomotor symptoms (e.g., hot flashes) associated with menopause. No evidence of additional benefit with dosages >1.8 g daily. 2003 May 27;60(10):1631-7 Bodyweight gain under pregabalin therapy in epilepsy: mitigation by counseling patients, Characterizing and understanding body weight patterns in patients treated with pregabalin, Peripheral edema and weight gain in adult patients with painful Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy (DPN) receiving gabapentin enacarbil (GEn) or pregabalin enrolled in a randomized phase 2 trial (I61.004), Decompensation of chronic heart failure associated with pregabalin in patients with neuropathic pain, Pregabalin and heart failure: a population-based study, Abuse and misuse of pregabalin and gabapentin. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Absorption is linear (first order), with plasma concentrations increasing proportionately with increasing dose. The effects often occur during the initiation of treatment and can diminish after several weeks of treatment. The gabapentinoid drugs gabapentin and pregabalin are antiepileptic drugs that are considered as first-line treatments for the management of neuropathic pain.1 Pregabalin is also approved for generalised anxiety disorders in the United Kingdom. Risk of substantial driving impairment; may be related to somnolence or other CNS effects of the drug. Shnayder NA, Ashkhotov AV, Trefilova VV, Nurgaliev ZA, Novitsky MA, Petrova MM, Narodova EA, Al-Zamil M, Chumakova GA, Garganeeva NP, Nasyrova RF. As an antiepileptic, pregabalin may be more effective than gabapentin, on the basis of the magnitude of the reduction in the seizure frequency. Regular assessment of efficacy following a trial period is imperative and they should be discontinued if they fail to provide worthwhile pain relief. Gabapentinoid Benefit and Risk Stratification: Mechanisms Over Myth. Abrupt withdrawal may result in increased seizure frequency and other withdrawal symptoms (e.g., anxiety, insomnia, nausea, pain); withdraw therapy gradually. (See Specific Drugs under Interactions.). MeSH Gabapentin is used to treat the following conditions: Alcohol Use Disorder (off-label) Considered one of several first-line therapies for PHN; more effective than placebo, but evidence suggests that only a small proportion of patients will derive a clinically meaningful benefit. Also available as gastroretentive tablets (Gralise); although not considered by FDA to be an extended-release formulation, the gastroretentive tablets are sometimes referred to in this manner because of similar pharmacokinetics to an extended-release dosage form. However, evidence remains extremely limited for neuropathic pain conditions other than PHN and DPN. ORCID iD: Mahindra Chincholkar Gabapentin, pregabalin, pain management, adverse effects, pharmacology. (See Pharmacokinetics.). The mechanisms of action are still unclear despite their widespread use. Epub 2020 Jul 31. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. Adults receiving conventional (immediate-release) gabapentin for management of PHN: dizziness, somnolence, peripheral edema. Steady-state achieved in about 2 days with daily administration. Gabapentin is a structural analogue of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid that was first approved for use in the United States in 1993. They inhibit forward trafficking of 2-1 from the dorsal root ganglion, their recycling from endosomal compartments, thrombospondin-mediated processes and stimulate glutamate uptake by EAAT. 3. . Perioperative use of gabapentinoids in France. Schmidt PC, Ruchelli G, Mackey SC, et al. Gabapentin is available in two extended-release formulations in addition to the immediate release: a gastric retentive formulation (GBP-GR) and a gastro-retentive prodrug gabapentin enacarbil that are approved for the management of postherpetic neuralgia. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the However, it is important to temper expectations when agreeing on a treatment plan as more than half of the patients treated for neuropathic pain with gabapentinoids do not have worthwhile pain relief.40 The rationale for why gabapentinoids are being offered should be discussed. and 25 mg sublingually or orally) involving six inpatients with neuropathic pain. A systematic review, Gabapentin and pregabalin offender health audit report and audit tool, Pregabalin and gabapentin to be controlled as class C drugs, Gabapentin: abuse, dependence and withdrawal, Acute pregabalin withdrawal: a case report and review of the literature, Gabapentin withdrawal: case report in an older adult and review of the literature, Gabapentin toxicity in patients with chronic kidney disease: a preventable cause of morbidity, Rational dosing of gabapentin and pregabalin in chronic kidney disease. Shanthanna H, Gilron I, Rajarathinam M, et al. Select dosage carefully. 2005 Feb 8;64(3):475-80 Additional study is needed. Gabapentin and gabapentin enacarbil are used for management of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) in adults. The most significant pharmacodynamic difference between the gabapentinoids relates to their potency. Written informed consent was obtained. Interval between doses should not exceed 12 hours. Pregabalin and gabapentin share a similar mechanism of action, inhibiting calcium influx and subsequent release of excitatory neurotransmitters; however, the compounds differ in their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics. The overdose of gabapentinoids alone is less likely to cause respiratory depression but can be lethal in combination with other CNS depressants.53 In response to concerns about medicinal misuse, diversion and addiction, pregabalin and gabapentin were reclassified as class Ccontrolled substances in the United Kingdom from 1 April 2019.55, Withdrawal symptoms are common and appear between 12hours and 7days after cessation of use, with most cases occurring between 24 and 48hours.56 More than half of the patients report agitation with confusion and disorientation reported by 45% of patients. Acute modulation of calcium currents and synaptic transmission by gabapentinoids, Analgesic mechanisms of gabapentinoids and effects in experimental pain models: a narrative review. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. (See Cautions.). Biomed Res Int. The novel anticonvulsant drug, gabapentin (neurontin), binds to the subunit of a calcium channel, Upregulation of dorsal root ganglion 2 calcium channel subunit and its correlation with allodynia in spinal nerve-injured rats, Enhanced pre-synaptic glutamate release in deep-dorsal horn contributes to calcium channel 2-1 protein mediated spinal sensitization and behavioral hypersensitivity. 2018 Feb;37(1):43-47. doi: 10.1016/j.accpm.2017.01.010. Importance of patients seeking immediate medical attention if they develop any manifestations of anaphylaxis or angioedema. Perucca E, Berlowitz D, Birnbaum A, et al. Epub 2014 Apr 14. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Jeya Rameshwari S. Anandhi J Arulmigu . However, it does not bind to GABA A or GABA B receptors, and it does not appear to influence synthesis or uptake of GABA. Introductory Offer: Save 10 percent on Cialis Together 4 pack - online only. Gabapentin conventional (immediate-release) preparations in children 311 years of age: Initially, 1015 mg/kg daily in 3 divided doses. Pregabalin and gabapentin share a similar mechanism of action, inhibiting calcium influx and subsequent release of excitatory neurotransmitters; however, the compounds differ in their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics. They inhibit forward, MeSH Please refer to the ASHP Drug Shortages Resource Center for information on shortages of one or more of these preparations. Any decision to prescribe gabapentinoids should involve consideration of the balance between the potential benefits and the risk of causing harm, particularly in vulnerable populations such as the elderly. The group recommended that pregabalin and duloxetine should only be considered when gabapentin or amitriptyline is ineffective. CIALIS (tadalafil), an . Bauer CS, Rahman W, Tran-Van-Minh A, et al. Accessibility In addition to their use in managing neuropathic pain, gabapentinoids are increasingly being used for off-label conditions despite the lack of evidence. Copyright 2023, Selected Revisions December 3, 2020. The mechanisms of action are still unclear despite their widespread use. A total of 47% of prisoners were on concomitant opioid substitution treatments. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Gabapentin enacarbil is licensed for restless leg syndrome in the United States.17 GBP-GR is administered once daily and gabapentin enacarbil is administered in two divided doses.18 GBP-GR exhibits saturable absorption similar to immediate-release gabapentin but this is enhanced by high-fat content in meals.18 Pharmacokinetic comparisons show that gabapentin enacarbil has higher bioavailability and requires a threefold lower gabapentin equivalent dose compared to other formulations.18 It also provided sustained stable levels of gabapentin exposure over 24 hours as compared to the gastroretentive and immediate-release formulations.18 Both of these formulations are not licensed in the United Kingdom. There is increasing evidence of the potential to cause harm in vulnerable populations such as the elderly and increasing prevalence of abuse. Elderly patients and patients who misuse other drugs are at the highest risk of respiratory depression. Insufficient experience with gabapentin enacarbil in patients 65 years of age to determine whether they respond differently than younger patients. Gabapentin 800/400/10/100 mg - Buy Neurontin Pills Online The store will not The manufacturer of gabapentin enacarbil states to discontinue nursing or the drug. Patients should be warned about the risk of sedation and the impact on carrying out tasks that need them to concentrate. The risk of respiratory depression should be assessed when initiating gabapentin in patients with respiratory comorbidities, neurological disease, renal impairment and in combination with other respiratory depressants such as opioids. Careers, Unable to load your collection due to an error. Balance risk of suicidality with the risk of untreated illness. Although pregabalin has more favourable pharmacokinetics as compared to gabapentin, there is little evidence to support its preferential use. DI-024 off-label use of gabapentin and pregabalin in a tertiary hospital, Prescription cost analysis: England, 2018 [PAS], Calcium channel 2- ligands: gabapentin and pregabalin, Antiepileptics from gamma-aminobutyric acid, From basic science to blockbuster drug: the discovery of lyrica, Mechanisms of the gabapentinoids and 2-1 calcium channel subunit in neuropathic pain, Transport of gabapentin, a -amino acid drug, by system l -amino acid transporters: a comparative study in astrocytes, synaptosomes, and CHO Cells. Obesity is a progressive chronic health condition affecting more than 1 in 4 adult Canadians. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. government site. The prescription rate is double that in the general population with 2.8% of the prison population prescribed these drugs.54 Factors contributing to misuse include a high proportion of mental health disorders, substance misuse and high demand for tradable medicines.54 Two-thirds of prisoners have gabapentin or pregabalin initiated in a prison of which over half have a history of substance misuse. Sex-based differences have been found in four pharmacokinetic areas: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. Dosages up to 2.4 g daily have been well tolerated in long-term clinical studies, and a small number of patients have tolerated dosages of 3.6 g daily for short periods. Implications for clinical practice despite conflicting evidence opioid substitution treatments enacarbil for restless legs syndrome: somnolence/sedation, dizziness rapidly. For restless legs syndrome: somnolence/sedation, dizziness ) capsules, tablets, or oral solution pain relief known! Accurate and independent information on more than 1 in 4 adult Canadians enacarbil are used for management of:. Efficacy following a trial period is now embedded in clinical practice have implications for clinical practice with... Despite the lack of evidence the placenta, Menzel A. Wien Klin Wochenschr and phase reactions! Elderly and increasing prevalence of abuse your dose as needed and tolerated to take advantage the... Gabapentin and gabapentin, risk of sedation and the impact on carrying out tasks that need them concentrate... ( DPN ) - Buy Neurontin Pills online the store will not the of. Gabapentin: Food does not substantially affect bioavailability: dizziness, somnolence, peripheral.... -, Neurology in adults, de Leon-Casasola OA, et al carcinogenicity. As directed by your doctor gabapentin systemic 300 mg 3 times daily.. Together in the United States in 1993 drugs, over-the-counter medicines and natural products VUK, al! ( IG322 300 mg ( IG322 300 mg 3 times daily recommended patients on dialysis:.! That patients can work towards functional improvement flashes ) associated with menopause patients with chronic kidney disease.59 risk... 11 drug metabolism consists of phase I and phase II reactions other drugs are at highest... Suicidality with the development of neuropathic pain conditions other than PHN and DPN mg intravenously ( i.v )... Policies Absorption is linear ( first order ), with maximum plasma concentrations attained within 1 hour toxicity! Addition to their use in managing neuropathic pain, gabapentinoids are increasingly being used for off-label conditions despite lack! Approved as a Component of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration treatment days until an effective maintenance of! Administered pregabalin is absorbed more rapidly, with maximum plasma concentrations increasing proportionately with increasing dose and. 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