Hoboken: Basil Blackwell. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Briol (Eds. (2006). But research has shown that ingroup favoritism may play a stronger role than outgroup derogation in explaining the intergroup bias (Gaertner et al., 2006; Balliet et al., 2014) and therefore even if they are constructs on the same continuum, they remain separate. This review highlights the need to continue to use implicit attitudes procedures in future researches, in order to identify those factors that may contribute to the formation and expression of implicit attitudes of teachers; and the need to increase awareness of the implicit attitudes and multicultural practices of teachers in teaching programs. (Biased) Grading of Students performance: students names, performance level, and implicit attitudes. This could be achieved through an awareness of their own implicit attitudes toward ethnic minority students, by practicing prejudice reduction techniques (Abacioglu et al., 2019) and by engaging in cultural responding practices in the classroom and resolving interethnic conflicts (Kumar et al., 2015; Pirchio et al., 2017). Mem. 84, 554578. doi: 10.1177/1741143217739360. Teachers might influence paths of the ethnic minority students through their grading. The implementation of inclusive policies is largely dependent on teachers' willingness to accommodate students with special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream classrooms, which is affected by their perceived competence and attitudes. 45, 5561. Teachers did not express differential explicit beliefs regarding the learning and social behaviors of students based on the educational level of the parents, and their expectations concerning the motivation and ambitions or educational chances of these students were neutral. Greenwald, A. G., and Banaji, M. R. (1995). But it is not enough to assume that younger teachers (as preservice teachers are) may have more contact with ethnic minority people. One study did not strictly examine attitudes of implicit teachers, but rather attitudes as a link between ethnic minority students and performance expectations (Peterson et al., 2016). 282312). Passiatore, Y., Pirchio, S., Carrus, G., Maricchiolo, F., Fiorilli, C., and Arcidiacono, F. (2019). ), The Oxford handbook of social cognition (pp. 12, 127142. Educ. Nevertheless, successful interventions directed at reducing teacher bias have already been implemented (e.g., Pirchio et al., 2019), but it still remains an expensive and risky course of action due to the uncertain outcome when it comes to implicit prejudice (Fitzgerald et al., 2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205275613. https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-0652/a000064. 94, 1631. Wittenbrink, B., & Schwarz, N. (2007). Wagner, W., Helmke, A., & Schrader, F.-W. (2009). We postulate that when a teacher has a negative attitude toward English as a medium of instruction, this will cause feelings of disappointment among students, which in turn demotivate the students from learning English. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). It may not be new content, but we are learning new ways to best reach our students. Teachers working in an ethnically diverse setting, with a large percentage of ethnic minority students, also showed less biased attitudes toward ethnic minority students (Glock et al., 2019; Chin et al., 2020). However, this was not the case among middle and secondary teachers, whose implicit attitudes toward English learner students are not only not positive but rather, in line with other studies, they are found to be negative toward the minority group of students compared to mainstream students (Harrison and Lakin, 2018a). Educ. According to this, the cognitive component can only partially predict behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), since the behavior is composed of human beliefs, attitudes, and intentions (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2005). Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312042002305. Psychol. We also would like to thank the Dutch Inspectorate of Education, especially Sven Baijens, Gerard Eising, Eline Gerats, Martin Uunk and Klazien Witte for the collaboration and support in collecting the data. Results show that overall teachers (from different school levels and different countries) hold negative implicit attitudes toward ethnic minority students, which play an important role in affecting the academic path of these groups of students. Diversity is perceived as complicated, difficult, and overwhelming to deal with by most teachers (Dooly, 2005). Santavirta, N., Solovieva, S., and Theorell, T. (2007). Only studies published in scientific journals were considered, excluding doctoral dissertations, book chapters, conference proceedings, and reports. . Reardon, S. F., and Portilla, X. J. Educ. Oxford: Oxford University Press. As a consequence, the attitudes and expectation that the teachers may develop toward them as a group may be influenced by these characteristics and therefore future research could address this topic with a specific attention to this issue. J. Res. Figure 1. Psychol. Understanding and using the implicit association test: II. (1995). Screening involved the rejection of titles if it was clearly not fulfilling the inclusion of the aforementioned criteria. What are implicit measures and why are we using them? doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.426, Garmon, M. A. On the automatic activation of associated evaluations: An overview. Eur. Rudman, L. A. This means that the term basketball can evoke both concepts, bouncing and floating, but it will depend on the particular context in which the basketball stimulus is presented, which of these will be activated. Psychol. In their study on preservice teachers, Bonefeld and Dickhuser (2018) have shown how implicit attitudes play a role in predicting teacher evaluations of students with migrant backgrounds, but their results are unexpected. 1 Teacher and Teaching Effects on Students' Attitudes and Behaviors Abstract Research has focused predominantly on how teachers affect students' achievement on tests despite evidence that a broad range of attitudes and behaviors are equally important to their https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.04.005. Psychol. Although ample research is available concerning differential teacher attitudes based on student ethnicity, few studies have considered the effect of the educational level of the parents. doi: 10.1007/s10212-017-0360-y, Payne, B. K., Burkley, M. A., and Stokes, M. B. Eval. Washington: Center for American Progress. Psychological Review, 82, 407428. J. Intercult. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior, in Psychology of Intergroup Relations, eds S. Worchel and W. Austing (Chicago: Hall Publishers), 724. doi: 10.1016/j.stueduc.2017.04.002, Glock, S., and Kleen, H. (2019). Eur. Timing of school tracking as a determinant of intergenerational transmission of education. https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-0652/a000056. According to the PICOS approach (Liberati et al., 2009), the following information has been extracted from the selected studies: authors and year of publication, country, characteristics of participants, target students, implicit methods, and materials. Sociology, 35, 893912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.010. Personal. doi: 10.1037/a0017289, De Houwer, J. Ethnic minority students in classes where teachers had more negative implicit attitudes performed worse on achievement tests than ethnic minority students in classes where implicit attitudes were more positive (van den Bergh et al., 2010). 42, 123140. After removing duplicates and a first screening made by reading the title, this pool was reduced to 57 articles. 14, 636639. The road to integration. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60318-4, Fazio, R. H. (2007). Associative learning of likes and dislikes: Some current controversies and ways forward. (2016). 50, 229238. 34, 225238. Clear. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Nevertheless, since AMP is based on ratings, and therefore from explicit judgments, it is more likely to be a procedure that is susceptible to faking (Schnabel et al., 2008), more than the other implicit attitude measures that rely on reaction times. Teaching is a profession where we are constantly learning new things. Fazio, R. H. (1990). European Review of Social Psychology, 16, 335390. doi: 10.1787/d8ceec5d-en, Olson, M. A., and Fazio, R. H. (2003). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. The roles of teacher and student gender in German teachers attitudes toward ethnic minority students. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464, Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., and Banaji, M. R. (2009). Gender Stereotypes and Attitudes Toward Women and Men. This behavior pattern of teacher can also be a consequence of the implicit attitudes and expectations that teachers have toward students and their academic paths and career opportunities (Boser et al., 2014), which are commonly negative toward marginalized groups of students, namely, ethnic minorities (Pit-ten Cate and Glock, 2019). Educational transitions and differential learning environments: How explicit between-school tracking contributes to social inequality in educational outcomes. Ann. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 743762. Are boys better off with male and girls with female teachers? Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 168179. Instruct. Evidence for Racial Prejudice at the Implicit Level and Its Relationship with Questionnaire Measures. doi: 10.1027/1015-5759.24.4.210, Sherman, J. W. (1996). Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005a). They can be toward an object, an abstract concept such as inclusion, a person, or a group (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). Pirchio, S., Passiatore, Y., Carrus, G., Maricchiolo, F., Taeschner, T., and Arcidiacono, F. (2017). Implicit and explicit measures of attitudes: The perspective of the MODE model. We are grateful to all teachers that participated in the study. The . The association between job strain and emotional exhaustion in a cohort of 1,028 Finnish teachers. Stud. Dropping Out. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796807080236. Beyond judgment bias: How students ethnicity and academic profile consistency influence teachers tracking judgments. This behavior pattern of teacher can also be a consequence of the implicit attitudes . Allport, G. (1954). Nineteen studies were included. In G. J. Duncan & R. J. Murnane (Eds. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 5363. Further, language barriers have to be considered, since students who speak at home a language that is different from the language used in school may have disadvantages in the assessment tests used (OECD, 2016). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 166180. 28, 639663. New York, NY: Psychology Press. The generality of the keywords was purposely selected to include all the categories of students identified in the literature with the term ethnic minorities (e.g., first- and second-generation, students with immigrant background, newcomers) and all school grades. This study examined the relationship of relevant teachers' personal variables (gender, age, length of professional experience, and the grade of the school in which they teach), characteristics of the students with disabilities (type of disability, gender), and contextual factors (type of information provided in the students' profiles of children. J. Exp. PISA 2009 results: Overcoming social backgroundEquity in learning opportunities and outcomes. Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 507520. Personal. 391445). Are between- and within-school differences in student performance largely due to socio-economic background? Table 1. A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. J. OECD Rev. 37, 176187. Curr. Educ. Teachers and preservice teachers stereotypes, attitudes, and spontaneous judgments of male ethnic minority students. The review process was conducted according to the PRISMA Statement (Moher et al., 2015). Relat. Manag. Explicit attitudes were assessed via questionnaire. The studies examining attitudes of preservice teachers conclude that their implicit ethnic attitudes are negative (Bonefeld and Dickhuser, 2018; Glock and Bhmer, 2018; Glock and Kleen, 2019; Glock et al., 2019; Kleen et al., 2019). https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013. Dasgupta, N. (2004). Psychol. Epidemiol. Linking these results with those showing that teachers' attitudes toward the inclusion of students with challenging behaviors and learning difficulties are negative (Krischler & Pit-ten Cate, 2019) might help to understand why teachers hold negative attitudes toward the inclusion of students with ASD. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015575. Retelsdorf, J., & Mller, J. Intercultural practices and inclusive education in Europe: can migration be a resource for individual and societal development? Soc. Statistically small effects of the implicit association test can have societally large effects. The most used method to assess implicit attitudes is the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998), which presents a good reliability (Schnabel et al., 2008) and validity (Nosek et al., 2005; Greenwald et al., 2009). Soc. Thus, there are other contact experiences, such as friendships, that might be relevant in research, that can have a positive influence on attitudes (Pettigrew et al., 2011), and that have not been addressed. [Cultural background or cultural beliefs? Ethnic minority students show lower performances in school than ethnic majority peers (Haycock, 2001; Dee, 2005; Reardon and Portilla, 2015), and they drop out of school more frequently and earlier (Rumberger, 2011). https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930500484506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2017.04.002. The aim of the current study was to investigate teachers implicit and explicit attitudes toward students with differentially educated parents. Explaining socioeconomic inequalities in student achievement: The role of home and school factors. Economics Letters, 91, 9097. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0038038501008938. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. Educ. Teachers explicit expectations and implicit prejudiced attitudes to educational achievement: relations with student achievement and the ethnic achievement gap. Recent Trends in Socioeconomic and Racial School Readiness Gaps at Kindergarten Entry. J. Educ. Paris: OECD Publishing. Two different categories of objects (the target attitude and a contrast attitude, for example, students of ethnic minority vs. students of ethnic majority) and evaluation (positive vs. negative) are presented in the IAT. An excellent benefit of teaching is the need to always stay up-to-date on the best practices and strategies that can benefit our students. Recent advances in intergroup contact theory. Instead, they may vary depending on contexts (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993; Gawronski and Bodenhausen, 2006a). Linee guida per il reporting di revisioni sistematiche e meta-analisi: il PRISMA Statement. 89, 616634. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.53. The underlying assumption is that the evaluation elicited by the target stimulus will still be active when the Chinese character is presented immediately afterward, on which then will be displaced. Res. The effect of students ethnicity on teachers judgments and recognition memory. Soc. 19, 162178. The PRISMA Statement consists of a 27-item checklist and a four-phase flow diagram, which aims to guide authors in improving the reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. This could be explained in light of the different focus in the different school levels. Interventions among teachers might be carried out employing the most effective strategies to reduce implicit prejudice, such as exposure to counterstereotypical exemplars (where participants are exposed to exemplars that contradict the stereotype of the outgroup), intentional strategies to overcome biases (participants are instructed to implement strategies to override or suppress their biases), or identifying the self with the outgroup (where they perform tasks to reduce barriers between themselves and the outgroup) (Fitzgerald et al., 2019). doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.297, Nosek, B. Stud. This is part of a more general limitation in the literature relative to the consideration of the characteristics and status of the target population of attitudes. Carter, P. L. (2005). Psychol. J. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380393. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2011.12.002, Strand, S. (2014). The MODE model of attitude-behavior processes. The growing diversity could be an opportunity for both students and teachers, leading to a readjustment of teaching practices to meet the needs of students from different cultures (Passiatore et al., 2019). Stanford: Stanford Center for Education Policy Analysis. 55, 201213. Epstein, S. (1994). Implicit and explicit attitudes influence preservice teachers judgments of students. Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal-directed behavior. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.010, Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). (1995). In the study from Glock and Karbach (2015), three different methods of implicit measurement were used, and although they lead to different results, the conclusions that can be drawn are the same. Sources of Implicit Attitudes. Education, 125, 249260. These data are summarized in Table 1. Dovidio, J. F., & Fazio, R. H. (1992). The data suggest that in . A teacher, in the most general terms, is a person working in educational institutes who enables students to reach cognitive, sensory and behavioral aim and gains within the range determined by the educational system (Gundogdu, Silman, 2007: 259). Econ. Online Learn. This period was chosen because, although the IAT was introduced more than 20 years ago (Greenwald et al., 1998), studies concerning implicit attitudes of teachers only appeared in the past 10 years (Pit-ten Cate and Glock, 2019). J. Psychol. Mainstream Teachers Implicit Beliefs about English Language Learners: an Implicit Association Test Study of Teacher Beliefs. M. B. Eval, difficult, and self-concept, 5363 S., and reports exhaustion. Letters, 91, 9097. https: //doi.org/10.3102/00028312042002305 B. Eval educational transitions and learning... Payne, B. K., Burkley, M. R. ( 1995 ) perspective..., T. 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